Bio Tech

End-Grain Construction also know as butcher block This type of board helps maintain the sharpness of your knives because the blocks are glued in such a manner that keeps the wood fibers parallel to the direction of the cut. Instead of your knife cutting the wood fiber, it goes in between adjacent fibers. This causes the surface to show less cut marks than a regular edge or face grain cutting board. As such, end grain blocks are the preferred choice by professional chefs and for applications that require heavy chopping. Edge/Face-Grain Construction This type of board is made by gluing pieces of wood with the wood fiber parallel to the surface. When the edge grain is up we have an edge grain cutting...

It's not uncommon to hear the similar phrases quality control and quality assurance1 used interchangeably. This tendency, though a seemingly benign blunder, is actually a revealing reflection of an unhealthy quality management system. What is quality control? First of all, quality control is the "check" or the "end-of-the-immediate-task-at-hand" record or analysis that determines the acceptability or unacceptability of a product, a product plan, a product part, etc. Tasks related to quality control may include documented reviews, calibration, or additional types of measurable testing (sampling, etc.). Tasks related to quality control will reoccur more often than activities associated with quality...

These days' people tend to make their payments using their credit or debit card. Everything is done electronically and though we may still use cash as a form of payment, we also rely heavily on making transactions via our cards or internet transfer. The only problem with this kind of transaction is that there is very little in terms of validating the payment details and the authorisation of the payment. These payments are being made automatically; from one bank to another therefore there is no guarantee that details provided by the payer are valid. Real time software and programs are normally used to validate electronic payments made in the UK or Europe. The validation process works by checking...

ent"> Understanding the nature of a revocable living trust is only as complicated as you think it to be, and how other people explain it to be. There are thousands of people, perhaps you’re one of them, confused with such explanations given by individuals having knowledge on the subject matter. So for the benefit of all, I’ll try define it in the simplest terms possible, for the sake of deeper comprehension, and to ultimately lower the number of baffled chumps — ready? Let’s get on with it then, starting here: basically, a revocable living trust is a legal document stating the manner in which your estate will be distributed amongst the beneficiaries. Was that a little too...

One of the most important aspects of any quality system is the control of monitoring and measurement processes. The systematic and random errors that can influence test results or process monitoring results can be from a variety of sources. It is important to identify the cause and effect relationships that can create the variability observed in test results. Generally, these sources can be summarized into the following categories: Equipment The equipment, whether it is a sophisticated automated electronic analyzer or glassware, has been manufactured to certain tolerances. The variability inherent to the equipment specifications will be reflected in the test results. Component wear, failure, or...

Ever since the World Wide Web Consortium, popularly known as W3C came into being, there has been a tide of agreements and disagreements. It lays down standards for validation of webpages for the coding in the HTML and CSS formats. This process of validation is focused on enabling the compatibility of your website with various browsers. W3C undoubtedly increases the usability and compatibility of each project. The provision of rendering error-free coding in this validation has made it quite popular among the fraternity of web developers. Similarly, for the SEO industry, W3C was a godsend tool. The rat-race of SEOs to prove their mettle certainly called for a need of such a compliant technique. The...

When I write scripts for customer service and for selling, I test them, tweak them here and there, and then I deploy them at my clients' sites. Minimally, it's a systematic process of validation, and once my scripts have been proven in dozens, hundreds, thousands and even millions of conversations, I can say, very authoritatively, that they work. From my standpoint it is important to be as scientific as possible, not only to be dispensing solutions that are assured of producing sales and customer satisfaction, but to overcome the perennial cynicism that salespeople, customer service reps, and their managers bring to scripts. There is always the question, "Will this work?" but an even more pertinent...

Practice provides the answer to the remaining questions. Through the variety of and successful validations of computer systems pharmaceutical companies have created accepted procedures for the validation of computer systems in a regulated environment. Over time pointers have emerged, which are accepted by government agencies and considered standard practice.This document is intended to provide the reader with an overview of the issues and topics associated with computer system validation in general and specifically in reference to system solutions from METTLER TOLEDO. The document shows and describes he steps required in a validation project and helps to clarify the subject matter. The steps...

Revalidation represents a major change in the way in which UK doctors will be regulated, and should help to ensure that all doctors and GPs are fit to practise, remain up to date with new developments in their field and have the necessary professional skills to cope with the non-medical demands of their work. Revalidation will require all doctors who wish to practise in the UK to hold a licence to practise. This is over and above their General Medical Council (GMC) registration, which is already mandatory for all doctors. Every five years, they will have to undergo revalidation to retain their licence to practise. The revalidation process itself will consist of two elements - relicensing and...

THE FACTS: On July 23, 2010 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration FDA approved the first generic version of Lovenox (enoxaparin sodium injection), an anti-coagulant drug used for multiple indications including prevention of deep vein thrombosis. FDA approved an abbreviated new drug application (ANDA) for Sandoz‘ product which is a generic version of Lovenox, approved for Sanofi-Aventis in 1993. Enoxaparin, the active ingredient of Lovenox, is a low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) with approximately 4500 Da manufactured from heparin by alkaline beta-eliminative cleavage of the benzyl ester of heparin. Other LMWHs are authorised which use different methods of heparin depolymerisation. The heparin...

Meetings are one of the most vital components of business, when they are used productively. So many people quote boring, unproductive meetings as being a 'waste of time', that some sense of it all is needed. Managing meetings effectively will help you make the best use of your and everyone else's time, whilst acknowledging the tremendous value of utilising those real opportunities where people get together in a generative, growth focused way. Using their time together wisely. 10 Simple Actions You Can Take Today! 1. Consider the meetings you took part in during the last week. Being really honest, how productive were they on a scale of 1 to 10. What would a meeting with a score of 3 better have been...

European Union has opted for the acceptance of REACH regulations on 1st June, 2007. REACH stands for Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemical. The regulation is adopted for streamlining and improving the former legislative framework on chemicals of the European Union. The regulations has put the Burden of Proof" on the industry to manage the risks that chemicals may pose to the health and the environment. REACH regulations covers not only industrial chemicals but also chemicals, which are used in our day-to-day life (e.g. paints, dyes used for clothing, etc.) Objectives of implementing REACH regulations are: * Improve the protection of human health and the environment from...

I don't want to get dramatic about this but having spent a decade of my life serving the Pharma Industry as a Pharma Sales Rep and later as Area Business Manager for one of thebiggest Pharma companies in the world, I personally think that Pharma Sales Rep job isneeded more than ever before. Why? Here are my top reasons for saying so... 1. Speedy updates. I still remember vividly the time when Vioxx was withdrawn from the market. Being a sales Manager at that time, I wish I could inform all my customers, especially the ones who basedat a certain remote area about the development. The news might not reach them there. And they themselves are sometimes have too little timeto spent watching the news...

Biopharmaceutical plants have contributed significantly towards the medical world. It has given new meaning to pharmaceutical engineering. The main working principle of these plants is that it first understands the needs of customers and then responds to their requirements. These plants properly implements all the latest tools and technologies and has created various innovative methods to develop useful medicines that can fight against crucial diseases. Biopharmaceutical plants implements skilled and experienced professionals and have superb management teams to concentrate on customer based manufacturing processes of various useful medicines. There are numerous evidences to prove their efficiency in...

The aim of everybody's life is to get a desired job and fine earnings to lead a peaceful life. Everybody needs a stable job along with the job satisfaction. Pharmaceutical engineering is one such field where a man can obtain everything he requires. Pharmaceutical engineers have various job opportunities where they can apply their cross-functional skills and experience and prove their worth. These engineers get a lot of mental satisfaction because they know that their services are for the betterment of the society. This branch of chemical engineering mainly takes care of manufacturing of highly efficient and potential medicines that can fight against common as well as crucial diseases. These...

The role of pharmaceutical market research in the pharmacy business is the gain of additional knowledge regarding the effect of the medicines they sell in the market, basically how these meds are sold and who are the consumers. They may include things like "why people buy or do not buy" their products. These researchers as well tend to point out some factors of that causes the industry to fail or to succeed. They also help to maximize their products routine inside the industry. They have a lot of researching and studying to do so that medicines will be purchased the way it is needed. For them also to be able to market the medicines those were not fully advertised and commercialized. This research...

Closed system drug transfer device is used for the purpose of enabling the safe handling of hazardous drugs and other noxious chemical compounds. The main reason behind the introduction of these safety systems is to reduce the risks of exposure to hazardous drugs. Various studies have revealed that the professionals working in the health care industries are often found to be affected by severe health disorders such as dermal infections, allergies, miscarriage, reproductive problems, birth defects, leukemia and cancer. These health defects are caused due to the contamination of the work places with hazardous drugs and exposure of people working in these areas to such disinfections. Therefore...

A manganese supplement contains a mineral known as manganese that is needed for normal bodily functions and growth. Taking a manganese supplement is the best way to ensure that your body is not deficient in manganese, a deficiency of which can lead to serious health problems. 4 Benefits of Taking a Manganese Supplement Taking a manganese supplement is very useful as it provides you with the essential mineral manganese that has the following health benefits: 1. In the form of manganese citrate, this mineral is very essential for the normal functioning of the body's Central Nervous System. 2. Manganese is a strong antioxidant, which helps to control the damage that is caused to your body, by the...

Risks are what go wrong when you are not looking. Stupid things happen like bounced checks, losing your best customers or best people when you are blindsided, which is why you need to create peripheral vision in your business so you are not blindsided. You need a perspective of business under the microscope and to have lived to tell the tale. When you develop insights for a common sense approach to what people make complex, as companies grow, you can identify and solve problems easier than you think. If you think of managing risks and rewards as an integral part of your business, what originally sounded like scary terms: enterprise risk management (ERM), operational risk management (ORM) or...

In the development process, QA undergoes the following phases: 1. Inspection-based QA Inspection-based QA has the following shortcomings: + Inspection becomes unnecessary and a great waste when production is well-arranged and products have fewer mistakes. + Responsibility in QA belongs to sellers (producers), buyers will check products when purchasing if they have any doubt about product quality. If sellers (producers) have effective QA systems, buyers do not need to check. + Information from Product quality checking departments to production departments takes much time and is sometimes useless while mistakes are repeated. Conversely, if they connect customers' interests with product quality and...

There is a growing list of drugs that are classified as dangerous and has been attributed to the more than two hundred thousand deaths each year just in the United States alone. Apparently, the main cause why these dangerous drugs are causing a high mortality rate is the fact that some pharmaceutical companies choose to manufacture drugs hastily to keep up with several competitors. These drug giants philosophize that their scientists could still continue with its drug testing while the drugs are being mass produced so that it will not affect their marketing timetable. The results are oftentimes predictable. The wonder drug that was introduced just two weeks ago is being pulled out from the store...

A department of the Federal Trade Commission is the Bureau of Consumer Protection, and its "mandate is to protect consumers against unfair, deceptive, or fraudulent practices." There are six division of the Bureau of Consumer Protection as follows: Division of Advertising Practices: Consumers are protected from deceptive or unsubstantiated advertising. The focus is on advertising of the following products: tobacco and alcohol, food and over-the-counter drugs, energy-related products, environmental products, and infomercials. Division of Enforcement: Consumers are protected by enforcing compliance with court orders in consumer protection cases, investigating and prosecuting civil actions to stop...

Manufacturers of consumer products selling into the U.S. market are aware of the potentially dangerous and costly consequences when their products contain a major design flaw or manufacturing defect. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) Web site indicates that there is indeed reason for caution on the part of all manufacturers: deaths, injuries, and property damage from consumer product-related incidents cost the U.S. more than $700 billion each year. The CPSC's "November 2007 Recalls and Product Safety News" report indicates a wide range of recent recalls that were enacted in order to protect consumers from potential dangers ranging from lead-based paint in toys to collapsing...

Did you know that the OSHA rules are so pervasive that if you take each page of the OSHA rules and regulations books and stacked them on top of each other they would go up in the sky 42-stories. Yes, it is true. Can you believe the amount of bureaucracy that OSHA is forcing on American businesses? Who does this really help? Not the workers, because the costs to comply with all the OSHA standards means there is less money in the company to pay the workers a higher salary and provide better benefits. Additionally, the OSHA rules and regulations help the trial lawyers sue American companies to make money and further take money away from the company that could in fact be used to pay the workers a...

There are 21 European "New Approach" Directives against which a wide range of products are required to be CE marked against before they are "placed on the market" in Europe. When placing the CE mark on the product the manufacturer or "his authorised representative in the European union" is declaring that the product complies with all applicable directives. The list of 21 applicable directives can be found on the European Commission website. The EU Directives are not themselves law as they are all taken into the the law of each member state. Whilst the directive and standards may be harmonised across Europe manufacturers still need to be aware of country specific requirements in safety standards...

In our travels in the waste management industry and in particular in our visits to landfills we have found that despite the fact that in the United Kingdom there are Health and Safety Regulations which require (under criminal law) that for all instances of confined space access the responsible persons shall have completed a risk assessment and shall only work to carefully judged and established safe working methods. All this will normally be done in accordance within the employer's, or site operator's own safety policy and standing method statements/ or procedures. Nevertheless, safety in confined spaces can be easily be compromised by over familiarity with the site, and most commonly of all...

The Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 is a landmark in law. For the first time, companies and organisations can be found guilty of corporate manslaughter as a result of serious management failures resulting in a gross breach of a duty of care. The Act, which will come into force on 6 April 2008, clarifies the criminal liabilities of companies including large organisations where serious failures in the management of health and safety result in a fatality. - The new act links to existing health and safety requirements regarding workplace safety. - Currently all work-related deaths are dealt with by the relevant authorities such as the Police, the 'Health and Safety Executive' and...

That question is one I hear a lot recently. What's all the fuss about? Why do I need to pay attention to all of these new "rules?" Isn't it just a way for someone to make money? With the passing of the HITECH Act, the HIPAA rules and regulations have undergone some big changes. Things that previously could be overlooked can no longer be ignored. Business associates are now required to implement the things in the security rule and much of the privacy rule. Even something as simple as not having written policies and procedures will mean you are not compliant. "It won't happen to me." So many people seem to be thinking that, while they understand there are new rules, it really doesn't apply to them...

Motivation - Poor Provider's Data Quality The provider's demographic data is dynamic by nature. Providers move their offices, add facilities, change their phone numbers, are sanctioned and stop practicing. Poor healthcare provider's data quality affects virtually every aspect of healthcare payer's enterprise, diluting profits and member goodwill. Their applications, interfaces, databases, files and reports currently use legacy provider identifiers. Provider data often exists in not one but many disparate databases throughout a healthcare payer's IT enterprise, including multiple variations of the same provider record. Provider's variations and discrepancies generate as much as 12 percent of...

For lawyers, every case brings its own unique and complicated facets to the courtroom. However, there are a certain number of set precedents to know when your client is under investigation for criminal fraud and related securities enforcement. 1. Federal criminal investigations are conducted by the U.S. Attorney's Office and the grand jury, and may or may not occur simultaneously with an SEC investigation. 2. As in a criminal case, generally, your client can assert the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination as to his/her statements in an SEC investigation or litigation. This may not be true with regard to responses to SEC discovery requests. 3. Securities and Exchange Commission ("SEC...

Earlier this year, on February 17th, 2009, President Obama signed the "American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA)" into law. "ARRA" provides a partial subsidy of COBRA and state mini-COBRA premiums to qualifying "assistance eligible individuals" (AEIs), their spouses, and their dependents. Premium assistance for these individuals began on or after the date the law went into effect and at this point lasts through December 31, 2009. Once eligibility is determined according to the parameters of the law, here's what employers need to DO to be in concert with the legislation. What Employers Need to DO COBRA subsidies will be available starting March 1, 2009. The employer must take the following...

Unless you've been living under a rock in outer space then you'll have heard about the smoking ban, but do you know about the legal updates on maternity leave, holiday entitlement and corporate management? Workers, employers and directors need to be aware of these developments. In case you're not up to speed, here is an overview of what you need to know. Maternity Leave and Maternity Rights The Work and Families Act 2006 enforced changes to employment and maternity leave regulations, employee's maternity leave rights and certain key notice periods. For mothers of children born after 1st April 2007, these changes are now in force. Maternity Leave: All female employees are now entitled to a total of...

The business world today is more sophisticated with many factors dictating whether you will be or even fail to appear in the list of successful business people. Unfortunately, many people want to engage in business without necessarily observing the law requirements. This puts you at a danger of loosing a lot of money in future if there is anything that has some law implications. In fact, so long as you are living in a land where there is law that governs behavior, know that all that you do, including business has some law. Are you thinking of registering your company, and do you know the procedure involved? Business registration is one of the fundamental prerequisites that define a serious business...

If you are a niche marketer and web publisher, you understand that the best way to achieve high search engine ranking for your keywords on Google, Yahoo, and MSN is to continually post relevant, unique and original articles on your website or blog. Well researched and relevant content is crucial to your online success. It is what gets you indexed by the major search engines and so your ongoing task is to provide quality content that is peppered with the right keywords and includes contextual links in order to profit from articles whether you are targeting adsense income or related affiliate programs. Instant Article Wizard 2.0 is a very user friendly article writing software interface that makes...

This article provides a clear vision on how the new approach of pharma call centers work. These contact centers cater the services for the marketed drug by the pharmaceutical companies' right from collecting and collating the adverse events, providing information regarding the product, receiving the product complaints, conducting market research and customer satisfaction surveys on the products, assist in subject/patient recruitment and retention in clinical trials on behalf of the pharmaceutical and clinical research companies. The pharmaceutical companies are benefited a lot by this process as they could concentrate more on core activities. Multi-disciplinary team Multi-disciplinary team of...

To begin, I would like to clear up a few misconceptions about these two money laundering terms. First, they are NOT synonymous. Smurfing is often a method employed to structure transactions, but many a financial institution’s “structuring” reports have nothing to do with smurfs. Second, while it is likely true that structuring is, by far, the most frequently reported transgression on SARs (Suspicious Activity Reports), the percentages that are quoted are deceiving. On the financial institution’s SAR form, the check box used for perceived structuring instances is titled “Bank Secrecy Act / Structuring / Money Laundering.”  So, as you can see, it is not a clean delineation. I spent a...

No company and/or industry today are immune from the escalating cost of crude oil. In an effort to address this growing concern, companies are seeking alternative, cost-effective ways to make every drop of fuel count. Although biodiesel is not a new type of fuel, its use has not been widely considered up until now. Today, its popularity is rapidly growing as an alternative to petroleum-based fuel that can be used in various blends in unmodified diesel engines. Biodiesel comes from vegetable oils that undergo transesterification, a chemical process that extracts methyl or ethyl esters from the oil. This extraction can be used as fuel, either in a pure or blended form. The oils come from renewable...

When the collector calls you an excessive amount of time per day that is one form of harassment. This harassment can be stopped. You have protection under the law against certain abusive tactics that some collection agencies employ. In the state of Texas, business solicitation calls can not be placed before 8 am or after 8 pm your time. That means that if a collection agency calls you before or after those hours, its harassment. You have the legal right to hang up under this condition. Another common ploy they use in harassment is to threaten you. This is very serious harassment. These are some of the types of verbal threats they may use against you: saying that they will send out a police officer...

<!-- @page { margin: 2cm } P { margin-bottom: 0.21cm } --> The qualification needed to apply for a personal licence to sell alcohol and advance your career prospects within the licensed retail sector in England and Wales is the National Certificate for Personal Licence Holders (NCPLH) Level 2.   In Scotland the equivalent certification is the Scottish Certificate for Personal Licence Holders (SCPLH). The Personal Licence Course provides the learner with a clear understanding of the framework of law and regulation, laid out in the Licensing Act (2003), that underpins the responsibilities of the personal licence holder.   The NCPLH and SCPLH courses include the roles, responsibilities and...

Types of Companies 1. Public Company means a company which is not a private company. 2. Private Company means a company which by its articles of association:-a.  Restricts the right of members to transfer its sharesb.  Limits the number of its members to fifty. In determining this number of 50, employee-members and ex-employee members are not to be considered.c.  Prohibits an invitation to the public to subscribe to any shares in or the debentures of the company. If a private company contravenes any of the aforesaid three provisions, it ceases to be private company and loses all the exemptions and privileges which a private company is entitled.   3. Companies deemed to be public limited company...

There are many essential components like quality topsoil that makes successful gardening and most people who own gardens, beds and borders of which they are justly proud, ensuring that these components come together and are maintained is a vitally important aspect to successful gardening. Perhaps the most important consideration for all gardening is the use of quality topsoil. Without quality topsoil, plants, fruits and vegetables will all begin to suffer over-time, as they fight for the last remaining nutrients that are left in the soil. It may be that all is required is to enhance the topsoil with soil conditioners and fertilisers. Sometimes a soil can be so bad that its ability to hold onto...

Doctrine of indoor management  Memorandum of Association and articles of association are two most important documents needed for the incorporation of a company. The memorandum of a company is the constitution of that company. It sets out the (a) object clause, (b) name clause, (c) registered office clause, (d) liability clause and (e) capital clause; whereas the articles of association enumerate the internal rules of the company under which it will be governed.  Undoubtedly, both memorandum of association and the articles of association are public documents in the sense that any person under section 610 of Indian company act, 1956 may inspect any document which will include the memorandum and...

It's all Dominance that's crucial in Predatory Pricing. Predatory pricing is a strategy that entails a temporary price below the cost of production in order to injure competition and thereby reap higher profits in the long run[i]. Predatory pricing is a strategy adopted to enhance market power. Predatory pricing has to be distinguished from a competitive pro-consumer pricing. There is a difference between pricing to meet and beat the competition; in predatory pricing the object is to hamper competition. The pricing scheme may be for elimination of a competitor or restriction of a potential entrant or reducing the cost of acquisition of a competitor. The preliminary object of predatory pricing is to...

The Firm is currently investigating the investment practices of the following PIMCO Mutual Funds: PML – Municipal Income Fund II PMX –Municipal Income Fund III PTY-Corporate Opportunity PZC-California Municipal Income Fund PYN-NY Municipal Income Fund III PNF-NY Municipal Income Fund The Firm also represents investors who were improperly advised to invest in variable annuities, which are investment vehicles often unsuitable for older investors, but yield high commissions for the selling broker. Investors victimized after placing their investment dollars, as well as their trust with a broker, advisor, brokerage firm or investment bank are represented by the Firm as well.  Contact Michael J...

Speeding tickets are definitely not the worst thing that could happen to you in traffic, but they could definitely bring one a lot of trouble. For every speeding ticket case solved unfavorably for you, there will be some penalty points added to your driving license. If you get twelve such points within a year, your license will be automatically suspended for two months, and a notification will be sent to you through mail informing you on the situation. Therefore, take the chance of beating the speeding tickets you get in order to reduce further deterioration of your situation, since speeding tickets are not just about suspension and fine payment as insurance companies will increase rates too. The...

An Alberta Registration of a Sole Proprietorship is governed by the Partnership Act (Alberta). An Alberta Sole Proprietorship is sometimes called an Alberta Trade Name. The statute says that each person who: (1) is engaged in business for trading, manufacturing, contracting or mining purposes; and (2) is not associated in partnership with any other person or persons and uses as the person’s business name some name or designation other than the person’s own, or the person’s own name with the addition of “and company” or some other word or phrase indicating a plurality of members in a firm;shall file with the Alberta Registrar a declaration in writing of the fact. This means if you are...

With China’s Basic Standard for Enterprise Internal Control (C-SOX or “China SOX”) coming into effect soon, many companies in China are struggling to develop an appropriate training plan for how to educate their workforce about this new rule. The biggest challenge for companies adopting China SOX is to improve their corporate governance.  For China SOX to really succeed, companies have to embrace sound corporate governance as a concept and adopt it as a business strategy. Training programs are needed to help drive the corporate governance principles mandated by the Basic Standard for Enterprise Internal Control.  But given the complexity of corporate governance and its many aspects, where...

The RoHs directive restricts the use of lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), hexavalent chromium (Hex-Cr), poly-brominated biphenyls (PBB) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) to maximum 1000 parts per million and cadmium to 100 ppm. The restrictions are on a homogeneous material basis, which means that they apply to any single substance that could (theoretically) be separated mechanically. The restricted substances have traditionally found extensive usage in Industrial control switches because they impart strength, reliability and durability. These are crucial properties as the switches often operate in harsh conditions such as in boilers, etc. They are expected to have a long life and operate accurately...

An article from defines contracts as legally binding agreements between two or more parties. The parties that enter into a contract can be individuals, businesses, organizations or agencies. A contract outlines what must or what must not take place between the two parties that enter into the agreement in exchange for something of value. A contract is a formal promise. So why are they important?   Ever since man began trading things between themselves, he also learned to give a guarantee for his wares, services, or whatever it is he is offering the other party. It was a solemn promise that his goods will meet or exceed the expectations of his buyer. In the early days, this was done verbally and with...